Σοφία ορθή. Τέτοιο πράμα δεν υπάρχει, διότι, αγαπητοί, ο καθένας πιστεύει την Σοφία του ορθή, άρα καμία δεν είναι.
Σοφία: φίλος (της). Το να είσαι φίλος της Σοφίας είναι βέβαια πιθανό, αλλά αυτό δεν σημαίνει ότι καταφέρνεις να την κρατήσεις χεράκι-χεράκι, πόσο μάλλον να επιτύχεις οποιοδήποτε είδος ή βαθμό συνουσίας, με την Σοφία, ορθή ή μη. Μπορείς πάντως να λες ότι είσαι φιλόσοφος, και αυτό αρκεί.
Ο θεωρούμενος μέγιστος φιλόσοφος όλων των εποχών, μάλιστα, αυτοκτόνησε για να αποδείξει ότι εκείνος είχε δίκιο, ρε, κι’ όχι οι άλλοι που τον κατηγορούσαν ότι πασπάλιζε τους νέους της κοινωνίας, να τους κάνει κι’ εκείνους φιλόσοφους... Και δεν άφησε τίποτα γραπτό. Το τι έλεγε το θυμόμαστε γιατί ένας κολλητός του τα έγραψε όλα, όπως τα θυμότανε, μη και τα ξεχάσουμε.
Οι καθώς πρέπει φιλόσοφοι, ανεβάζουν τον δρόμο ψηλά γιατί αν τον άφηναν, τον δρόμο, κάπου χαμηλότερα που να μπορούσαν όλοι να τον διαβούν, τότε όλοι θά ‘τανε φιλόσοφοι και δεν θα είχε το επάγγελμα τίποτα το ιδιαίτερο να επιδείξει.
Έτσι και φιλόσοφος πει απλά πράματα όπως το να αγαπάτε ο ένας τον άλλον, να μοιράζεστε αυτά που έχετε με εκείνους που δεν έχουνε, και τέτοια, τότε δεν είναι φιλόσοφος, αλλά κουμούνι, ή Θεός.
Διότι το δύσκολο μπορείτε να το βάλετε σ’ ένα κάδρο κρεμασμένο ψηλά σ’ ένα ντουβάρι και να το θαυμάζετε, και να λέτε κιόλας «είδες ο παππούς τι έλεγε; Είμαστε από καλή οικογένεια, ρε! Όχι σαν τους άλλους που κρεμόντουσαν απ’ τα δέντρα όταν ο παππούς πασπάλιζε τους νέους…» Αλλά, το εύκολο, του να μοιράζεστε τα αγαθά σας και να τους αγαπάτε όλους, δε σφάξανε και κάποιο λάκκο έχει η φάβα, δηλαδή τι φιλόσοφος, ο τύπος, ταραχοποιός ξυπόλητος! Εκτός βέβαια αν καταφέρνετε να επαναλαμβάνετε εκείνα που έλεγε χωρίς να τα εφαρμόζετε, επιβάλλοντας σε άλλους να τα κάνουνε, οπότε και γίνεστε σοσιαλιστές.
Το αντίθετο του σοσιαλισμού είναι ο φασισμός, διαχωριζόμενος 1) στην επιθυμία να αναζωπυρώστε την αυτοκρατορία που είχατε πριν 2.000 χρόνια, ο οποίος είναι φασισμός του χιλίαρχου των λεγεώνων, ή, 2) στην εμμονή ότι συνδέεστε με γενεαλογικό δέντρο φιλόσοφων και ο κόσμος σας χρωστάει, ο οποίος είναι φασισμός του μαυρομάτη (Τουρκιστί: «Καραγκιόζ»).
Το σπέρμα που σε δυό μόνο αιώνες αφού γράφτηκε γέννησε την φιλοσοφία, αλλά και την δυτική λογοτεχνία, ήταν δύο ποιήματα που αφηγούνταν πως κάποιος έκλεψε κάποιου άλλου την γυναίκα και πήγανε όλοι να τον κυνηγήσουνε αλλά έπρεπε πρώτα να δολοφονήσει ένας αρχηγός την κορούλα του για να φυσήξει αέρας. Μετά δεν μπορούσανε δέκα χρόνια να μπούνε μέσα μέχρι που κάποιος σκαρφίστηκε να τους δουλέψει κάνοντάς τους ένα δώρο το οποίο βγήκε απάτη, και μετά ο έξυπνος έκανε άλλα δέκα χρόνια να γυρίσει σπίτι του όπου δολοφόνησε όσους γλυκοκοιτούσαν την γυναίκα του είκοσι χρόνια μόνη της… Αυτό γράφτηκε πριν 2.800 χρόνια.
Πριν 2.600 χρόνια εμφανίστηκαν οι φιλόσοφοι, οι οποίοι κράτησαν κάπου τρεισήμισι αιώνες, από τον Θαλή μέχρι τον Αρχιμήδη και τον Ερατοσθένη. Και σε αυτά τα 350 περίπου χρόνια εκεί στο νοτιοανατολικό άκρο της Ευρώπης στηρίχθηκαν κάπου 800 χρόνια αρχαιότητας, 1.100 χρόνια σκοταδισμού, και κάπου 450 χρόνια αναγέννησης.
Η αναγέννηση μας επέτρεψε να 1) εφεύρουμε μια ύλη που ονομάζεται «πλαστικό» και γεμίσαμε τους ωκεανούς με πλαστικά μπουκάλια και σακούλες, 2) να χρησιμοποιήσουμε ορυκτά που τα καίμε για να γεμίσουμε τον αέρα διοξείδιο του άνθρακα ώστε να πάθουμε ασφυξία καθώς θα ιδρώνουμε από την ζέστη, και 3) να δημιουργήσουμε συσκευές βασισμένες στο άτομο του Δημόκριτου (φιλόσοφος), οι οποίες μπορούν να αφανίσουν την Γη σε δευτερόλεπτα αντί για τις δεκαετίες που χρειάζεται η πανούκλα.
Και, καθ’ όλα αυτά ζούμε με την περηφάνεια ότι το είδος έβγαλε φιλόσοφους.
Το Φέησμπουκ της Σοφίας έχει μιλιούνια φίλους και παίρνει πολλά «λάικ!» («Μου αρέσει!»).
Το Φέησμπουκ της Σοφίας έχει μιλιούνια φίλους και παίρνει πολλά «λάικ!» («Μου αρέσει!»).
Ας ακούσουμε όμως τι λέει ο βάρδος, σχετικά με το τι είναι η ζωή:
«Η ζωή δεν είναι παρά μια σκιά που περπατά, ένας φτωχός ηθοποιός,
Ο οποίος μεγαλόπρεπα περνά την ώρα του επί σκηνής
Και μετά δεν ακούγεται πια ποτέ: είναι μια ιστορία
Που την διηγείται ένας ηλίθιος, γεμάτος ήχο και στόμφο,
Χωρίς να σημαίνει τίποτα.»
- Μακμπέθ (Γουίλιαμ Σαίξπηρ, 1606)Άξιο σημείωσης ότι ο ποιητής χρησιμοποίησε την λέξη «idiot» που για μας μεταφράζεται σήμερα ως «ηλίθιος», όμως όταν τό ‘γραψε, «idiot» σήμαινε «ιδιώτης» (idiot) με την Αρχαία Ελληνική έννοια εκείνου που σκέφτεται μόνο τον εαυτό του ή τις δικές του μόνο απόψεις γεγονός που δεν αφήνει χώρο για γενικότερη γνώση ή σκέψη.
Βέβαια, παραπάνω εστίασα στους Αρχαίους Έλληνες Φιλοσόφους.
Όσο και να φαίνεται ακατανόητο στον Έλληνα, υπάρχουν πολλοί περισσότεροι φιλόσοφοι:
Από την Γουικιπαίδεια,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Western_philosophers
Από την Γουικιπαίδεια,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Western_philosophers
Western philosophers
Greek philosophers
600-500 BC
- Thales of Miletus (c. 624 – 546 BC). Of the Milesian school. Believed that all was made of water.
- Pherecydes of Syros (c. 620 - c. 550 BC). Cosmologist.
- Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610 – 546 BC). Of the Milesian school. Famous for the concept of Apeiron, or "the boundless".
- Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 585 – 525 BC). Of the Milesian school. Believed that all was made of air.
- Pythagoras of Samos (c. 580 – c. 500 BC). Of the Ionian School. Believed the deepest reality to be composed of numbers, and that souls are immortal.
- Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570 – 480 BC). Sometimes associated with the Eleatic school.
- Epicharmus of Kos (c. 530 – 450 BC). Comic playwright and moralist.
500-400 BC
- Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC). Of the Ionians. Emphasized the order and mutability of the universe.
- Parmenides of Elea (c. 515 – 450 BC). Of the Eleatics. Reflected on the concept of Being.
- Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (c. 500 – 428 BC). Of the Ionians. Pluralist.
- Empedocles (492 - 432 BC). Eclectic cosmogonist. Pluralist.
- Zeno of Elea (c. 490 – 430 BC). Of the Eleatics. Known for his paradoxes.
- Protagoras of Abdera (c. 481 – 420 BC). Sophist. Early advocate of relativism.
- Antiphon (480 - 411 BC). Sophist.
- Hippias (Middle of the 5th century BC). Sophist.
- Gorgias. (c. 483 – 375 BC). Sophist. Early advocate of solipsism.
- Socrates of Athens (c. 470 – 399 BC). Emphasized virtue ethics. In epistemology, understood dialectic to be central to the pursuit of truth.
- Critias of Athens (c. 460 - 413 BC). Atheist writer and politician.
- Prodicus of Ceos (c. 465 – c. 395 BC). Sophist.
- Leucippus of Miletus (First half of the 5th century BC). Founding Atomist, Determinist.
- Thrasymachus of Miletus (c. 459 - c. 400 BC). Sophist.
- Democritus of Abdera (c. 450 – 370 BC). Founding Atomist.
- Diagoras of Melos (c. 450 – 415 BC). Atheist.
- Archelaus. A pupil of Anaxagoras.
- Melissus of Samos. Eleatic.
- Cratylus. Follower of Heraclitus.
- Ion of Chios. Pythagorean cosmologist.
- Echecrates. Pythagorean.
- Timaeus of Locri. Pythagorean.
400-300 BC
- Antisthenes (c. 444 – 365 BC). Founder of Cynicism. Pupil of Socrates.
- Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 440 – 366 BC). A Cyrenaic. Advocate of ethical hedonism.
- Alcidamas c. 435 – c. 350 BC). Sophist.
- Lycophron (Sophist) c. 430 – c. 350 BC). Sophist.
- Diogenes of Apollonia (c. 425 BC – c 350 BC). Cosmologist.
- Hippo (c. 425 – c 350 BC). Atheist cosmologist.
- Xenophon (c. 427 – 355 BC). Historian.
- Plato (c. 427 – 347 BC). Famed for view of the transcendental forms. Advocated polity governed by philosophers.
- Speusippus (c. 408 – 339 BC). Nephew of Plato.
- Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 408 – 355 BC). Pupil of Plato.
- Diogenes of Sinope (c. 399 – 323 BC). Cynic.
- Xenocrates (c. 396 – 314 BC). Disciple of Plato.
- Aristotle (c. 384 – 322 BC). A polymath whose works ranged across all philosophical fields.
Hellenistic era philosophers
300-200 BC
- Theophrastus (c. 371 BC–c. 287 BC). Peripatetic.
- Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 – 270 BC). Skeptic.
- Strato of Lampsacus (c. 340 BC–c. 268 BC). Atheist, Materialist.
- Epicurus (c. 341 – 270 BC). Materialist Atomist, hedonist. Founder of Epicureanism
- Zeno of Citium (c. 333 – 264 BC). Founder of Stoicism.
- Timon (c. 320 – 230 BC). Pyrrhonist, skeptic.
- Chrysippus of Soli (c. 280 – 207 BC). Major figure in Stoicism.
200-100 BC
- Carneades (c. 214 – 129 BC). Academic skeptic. Understood probability as the purveyor of truth.
Roman era philosophers
100 BC - 1 AD
1-100 AD
- Cicero (c. 106 BC – 43 BC) Political theorist.
- Philo (c. 20 BC – 40 AD). Believed in the allegorical method of reading texts.
- Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – 65 AD). Stoic.
100-200 AD
- Epictetus (c. 55 – 135). Stoic. Emphasized ethics of self-determination.
- Marcus Aurelius (121–180). Stoic.
200-400 AD
- Sextus Empiricus (fl. during the 2nd and possibly the 3rd centuries AD). Skeptic, Pyrrhonist.
- Plotinus (c. 205 – 270). Neoplatonist. Had a holistic metaphysics.
- Porphyry (c. 232 – 304). Student of Plotinus.
- Iamblichus of Syria (c. 245 – 325). Late neoplatonist. Espoused theurgy.
- Augustine of Hippo (c. 354 – 430). Original Sin. Church father.
- Proclus (c. 412 – 485). Neoplatonist.
Medieval philosophers
500-800 AD
- Boethius (c. 480–524).
- John Philoponus (c. 490–570).
800-900 AD
- Al-Kindi (c. 801 – 873). Major figure at Islamic philosophy. Influenced by Neoplatonism.
- John the Scot (c. 815 – 877). neoplatonist, pantheist.
900-1000 AD
- al-Faràbi (c. 870 – 950). Major Islamic philosopher. Neoplatonist.
- Saadia Gaon (c. 882 – 942).
- al-Razi (c. 865 – 925). Rationalist. Major Islamic philosopher. Held that God creates universe by rearranging pre-existing laws.
1000-1100 AD
- Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (c. 980 – 1037). Major Islamic philosopher.
- Ibn Gabirol (Avicebron) (c. 1021–1058). Jewish philosopher.
- Anselm (c. 1034–1109). Christian philosopher. Produced ontological argument for the existence of God.
- al-Ghazali (c. 1058–1111). Islamic philosopher. Mystic.
1100-1200 AD
- Peter Abelard (c. 1079–1142). Scholastic philosopher. Dealt with problem of universals.
- Abraham ibn Daud (c. 1110–1180). Jewish philosophy.
- Peter Lombard (c. 1100–1160). Scholastic.
- Averroes (Ibn Rushd, "The Commentator") (c. 1126-December 10, 1198). Islamic philosopher.
- Maimonides (c. 1135–1204). Jewish philosophy.
- St Francis of Assisi (c. 1182–1226). Ascetic.
1200-1300 AD
- Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253).
- Albert the Great (c. 1193–1280). Early Empiricist.
- Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294). Empiricist, mathematician.
- Thomas Aquinas (c. 1221–1274). Christian philosopher.
- Bonaventure (c. 1225–1274). Franciscan.
- Siger (c. 1240 – c. 1280). Averroist.
- Boetius of Dacia. Averroist, Aristotelian.
1300-1400 AD
- Ramon Llull (c. 1232–1315) Catalan philosopher
- Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328). mystic.
- Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308). Franciscan, Scholastic, Original Sin.
- Marsilius of Padua (c. 1270–1342). Understood chief function of state as mediator.
- William of Ockham (c. 1288–1348). Franciscan. Scholastic. Nominalist, creator of Ockham's razor.
- Gersonides (c. 1288–1344). Jewish philosopher.
- Jean Buridan (c. 1300–1358). Nominalist.
- John Wycliffe (c. 1320–1384).
- Nicole Oresme (c. 1320-5 – 1382). Made contributions to economics, science, mathematics, theology and philosophy.
- Hasdai Crescas (c. 1340 – c. 1411). Jewish philosopher.
- Gemistus Pletho (c. 1355 – 1452/1454). Late Byzantine scholar of neoplatonic philosophy.
1400-1500 AD
- Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464). Christian philosopher.
- Lorenzo Valla (1407–1457). Humanist, critic of scholastic logic.
- Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499). Christian Neoplatonist, head of Florentine Academy and major Renaissance Humanist figure. First translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin.
- Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494). Renaissance humanist.
Early modern philosophers
1500-1550 AD
- Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536). Humanist, advocate of free will.
- Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527). Political realism.
- Sir Thomas More (1478–1535). Humanist, created term "utopia".
- Martin Luther (1483–1546). Major Western Christian theologian.
- Petrus Ramus (1515–1572).
1550-1600 AD
- John Calvin (1509–1564). Major Western Christian theologian.
- Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592). Humanist, skeptic.
- Pierre Charron (1541–1603).
- Giordano Bruno (1548–1600). Advocate of heliocentrism.
- Francisco Suarez (1548–1617). Politically proto-liberal.
1600-1650 AD
- Herbert of Cherbury. Nativist.
- Francis Bacon (1561–1626). Empiricist.
- Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). Heliocentrist.
- Hugo Grotius (1583–1645). Natural law theorist.
- François de La Mothe Le Vayer (1588-1672)
- Marin Mersenne (1588–1648). Cartesian.
- Robert Filmer (1588–1653).
- Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655). Mechanicism. Empiricist.
- René Descartes (1596–1650). Heliocentrism, dualism, rationalism.
- Baltasar Gracián (1601–1658). Spanish catholic philosopher
1650-1700 AD
- Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). Political realist.
- Antoine Arnauld (1612–1694).
- Henry More (1614–1687).
- Jacques Rohault. (1617–1672) Cartesian.
- Ralph Cudworth (1617–1688). Cambridge Platonist.
- Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). Physicist, scientist. Noted for Pascal's wager.
- Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673). Materialist, feminist.
- Arnold Geulincx (1624–1669). Important occasionalist theorist.
- Pierre Nicole (1625–1695).
- Geraud Cordemoy (1626-1684). Dualist.
- Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
- Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway (1631–1679).
- Richard Cumberland (1631–1718). Early proponent of utilitarianism.
- Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677).
- Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694). Social contract theorist.
- John Locke (1632–1704). Major Empiricist. Political philosopher.
- Joseph Glanvill (1636–1680).
- Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715). Cartesian.
- Isaac Newton (1643–1727).
- Simon Foucher (1644–1696). Skeptic.
- Pierre Bayle (1647–1706). Pyrrhonist.
- Damaris Masham (1659–1708).
- John Toland (1670–1722).
1700-1750 AD
- Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Co-inventor of calculus.
- John Norris (1657–1711). Malebranchian.
- Jean Meslier (1664-1729)
- Giambattista Vico (1668–1744).
- Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733).
- Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713).
- Samuel Clarke (1675–1729).
- Catherine Cockburn (1679–1749).
- Christian Wolff (1679–1754). Determinist, rationalist.
- George Berkeley (1685–1753). Idealist, empiricist.
- Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755). Skeptic, humanist.
- Joseph Butler (1692–1752).
- Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746). Proto-utilitarian.
- John Gay (1699–1745).
- David Hartley (1705–1757).
- Julien La Mettrie (1709–1751). Materialist, genetic determinist.
1750-1800 AD
- Voltaire (1694–1778). Advocate for freedoms of religion and expression.
- Thomas Reid (1710–1796). Member of Scottish Enlightenment, founder of Scottish Common Sense philosophy.
- David Hume (1711–1776). Empiricist, skeptic.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Social contract political philosopher.
- Denis Diderot (1713–1784).
- Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762).
- Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771). Utilitarian.
- Etienne de Condillac (1715-1780).
- Jean d'Alembert (1717–1783).
- Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789). Materialist, atheist.
- Adam Smith (1723–1790). Economic theorist, member of Scottish Enlightenment.
- Richard Price (1723–1791). Political liberal.
- Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Deontologist, proponent of synthetic a priori truths.
- Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786). Member of the Jewish Enlightenment.
- Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781).
- Edmund Burke (1729–1797). Conservative political philosopher.
- William Paley (1743–1805).
- Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826). Liberal political philosopher.
- Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). Utilitarian, hedonist.
- Sylvain Maréchal (1750–1803) Anarcho-communist, Deist
- Dugald Stewart (1753–1828).
- William Godwin (1756–1836). Anarchist, utilitarian.
- Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797). Feminist.
- Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805).
- Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814).
Modern philosophers
1800-1850 AD
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). Early evolutionary theorist.
- P.S. de Laplace (1749–1827). Determinist.
- Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821) Conservative
- Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). Socialist.
- Madame de Staël (1766–1817).
- Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Hermeneutician.
- G.W.F. Hegel (1770–1831). German idealist.
- James Mill (1773–1836). Utilitarian.
- F.W.J. von Schelling (1775–1854). German idealist.
- Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848).
- Richard Whately (1787–1863).
- Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Pessimist.
- John Austin (1790–1859). Legal positivist, utilitarian.
- William Whewell (1794–1866).
- Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Social philosopher, positivist.
- Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882). Transcendentalist, abolitionist, egalitarian, humanist.
- Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872).
- Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859).
- Max Stirner (1806-1856). Anarchist.
- Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871). Logician.
- John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Utilitarian.
- P.J. Proudhon (1809–1865). Anarchist.
- Charles Darwin (1809–1882).
- Margaret Fuller (1810–1850). Egalitarian.
- Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Existentialist.
- Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862). Transcendentalist, pacifist, abolitionist.
1850-1900 AD
- Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet (1788–1856).
- Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883). Egalitarian, abolitionist.
- Harriet Taylor Mill (1807–1858). Egalitarian, utilitarian.
- Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). Revolutionary anarchist.
- Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902). Egalitarian.
- Hermann Lotze (1817–1881).
- Karl Marx (1818–1883). Socialist, formulated historical materialism.
- Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Egalitarian, dialectical materialist.
- Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). Nativism, libertarianism, social Darwinism.
- Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906). Feminist.
- Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911).
- Edward Caird (1835–1908). Idealist.
- T.H. Green (1836–1882). British idealist.
- Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900). Rationalism, utilitarianism.
- Ernst Mach (1838–1916). Philosopher of science, influence on logical positivism.
- Franz Brentano (1838–1917). Phenomenologist.
- Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914). Pragmatist.
- William James (1842–1910). Pragmatism, Radical empiricism.
- Peter Kropotkin (1942-1921). Anarchist communism.
- Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). Naturalistic philosopher, influence on Existentialism.
- W. K. Clifford (1845–1879). Evidentialist.
- F.H. Bradley (1846–1924). Idealist.
- Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923). Social philosopher.
- Bernard Bosanquet (1848–1923). Idealist.
- Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). Influential analytic philosopher.
- Cook Wilson (1849–1915).
- Hans Vaihinger (1852–1933). Specialist in counterfactuals.
- David George Ritchie (1853–1903). Idealist.
- Alexius Meinong (1853–1920). Logical realist.
- Henri Poincaré (1854–1912).
- Josiah Royce (1855–1916). Idealist.
- Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison (1856–1931).
- Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913). Linguist, Semiotics, Structuralism.
- Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). Social philosopher.
- Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).
- Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). Founder of phenomenology.
- Samuel Alexander (1859–1938). Perceptual realist.
- Henri Bergson (1859–1941).
- John Dewey (1859–1952). Pragmatism.
- Jane Addams (1860–1935). Pragmatist.
- Pierre Duhem (1861–1916).
- Karl Groos (1861-1946). Evolutionary instrumentalist theory of play.
- Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947). Process Philosophy, Mathematician, Logician, Philosophy of Physics, Panpsychism.
- George Herbert Mead (1863–1931). Pragmatism, symbolic interactionist.
- Max Weber (1864–1920). Social philosopher.
- Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936).
- J. M. E. McTaggart (1866–1925). Idealist.
- Benedetto Croce (1866–1952).
- Emma Goldman (1869–1940). Anarchist.
- Rosa Luxemburg (1870–1919). Marxist political philosopher.
- G.E. Moore (1873–1958). Common sense theorist, ethical non-naturalist.
- Martin Buber (1878–1965). Jewish philosopher, existentialist.
1900-2000 AD
- George Santayana (1863–1952). Pragmatism, naturalism; known for many aphorisms.
- H.A. Prichard (1871–1947). Moral intuitionist.
- Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). Analytic philosopher, atheist, influential.
- A.O. Lovejoy (1873–1962).
- Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948). Existentialist.
- Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945).
- Max Scheler (1874-1928). German phenomenologist.
- Giovanni Gentile (1875–1944). Idealist and fascist philosopher.
- Ralph Barton Perry (1876–1957).
- W.D. Ross (1877–1971). Deontologist.
- Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). Christian evolutionist.
- Hans Kelsen (1881–1973). Legal positivist.
- Moritz Schlick (1882–1936). Founder of Vienna Circle, logical positivism.
- Otto Neurath (1882–1945). Member of Vienna Circle.
- Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950).
- Jacques Maritain (1882–1973). Human rights theorist.
- José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955). Philosopher of History.
- C.I. Lewis (1883–1964). Conceptual pragmatist.
- Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962).
- Georg Lukács (1885–1971). Marxist philosopher.
- Walter Terence Stace (1886–1967)
- Karl Barth (1886–1968).
- C. D. Broad (1887–1971).
- Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). Analytic philosopher, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, influential.
- Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973). Christian existentialist.
- Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). Phenomenologist.
- Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Marxist philosopher.
- Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970). Vienna Circle. Logical positivist.
- Walter Benjamin (1892-1940). Marxist. Philosophy of language.
- Brand Blanshard (1892–1987).
- F. S. C. Northrop (1893–1992). Epistemolog.
- Roman Ingarden (1893–1970). Perceptual realist, phenomenalist.
- Susanne Langer (1895–1985).
- Friedrich Waismann (1896–1959). Vienna Circle. Logical positivist.
- Georges Bataille (1897-1962).
- Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979). Frankfurt School.
- Xavier Zubiri (1898-1983). Materialist open realism.
- Leo Strauss (1899–1973). Political Philosopher.
- H.H. Price (1899–1984).
- Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976).
- Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). Hermeneutics.
- Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). Structuralism.
- Alfred Tarski (1901–1983). Created T-Convention in semantics.
- E. Nagel (1901–1985). Logical positivist.
- Karl Popper (1902–1994). Falsificationist.
- Mortimer Adler (1902–2001).
- Frank P. Ramsey (1903–1930). Proposed redundancy theory of truth.
- Theodor Adorno (1903–1969). Frankfurt School.
- Ernest Addison Moody (1903–1975).
- Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Humanism, existentialism.
- Karl Jaspers (1905–1982). Existentialist.
- Eugen Fink (1905–1975). Phenomenologist.
- Ayn Rand (1905–1982). Objectivist, Individualist.
- Kurt Gödel (1906–1978). Vienna Circle.
- Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995).
- Hannah Arendt (1906–1975). Political Philosophy.
- H.L.A. Hart (1907–1992). Legal positivism.
- C.L. Stevenson (1908–1979).
- Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961). Influential French phenomenologist.
- Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986). Existentialist, feminist.
- Willard van Orman Quine (1908–2000).
- Simone Weil (1909–1943).
- A.J. Ayer (1910–1989). Logical positivist, emotivist.
- J.L. Austin (1911–1960).
- Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980). Media theory.
- Alan Turing (1912–1954). Functionalist in philosophy of mind.
- Wilfrid Sellars (1912-1989). Influential American philosopher
- Albert Camus (1913–1960). Absurdist.
- Paul Ricœur (1913-2005). French philosopher and theologian.
- Roland Barthes (1915-1980). French semiotician and literary theorist.
- J. L. Mackie (1917–1981). Moral skeptic.
- Donald Davidson (1917–2003).
- Louis Althusser (1918-1990).
- R. M. Hare (1919–2002).
- P. F. Strawson (1919–2006).
- John Rawls (1921–2002). Liberal.
- Zygmunt Bauman (1925-2017). Polish sociologist and philosopher, who introduced the idea of liquid modernity.
- Frantz Fanon (1925–1961). Post-colonialism
- Gilles Deleuze (1925-1995). Post-structuralism
- Michel Foucault (1926–1984). Structuralism, Post-structuralism, Postmodernism, Queer theory.
- Hilary Putnam (1926-2016).
- David Malet Armstrong (born 1926).
- John Howard Yoder (1927–1997). Pacifist.
- Noam Chomsky (born 1928).
- Bernard Williams (1929-2003). Moral philosopher.
- Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007). Postmodernism, Post-structuralism.
- Jürgen Habermas (born 1929).
- Jaakko Hintikka (born 1929).
- Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929). Aristotelian.
- Allan Bloom (1930–1992). Political Philosopher.
- Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002). French psychoanalytic sociologist and philosopher.
- Jacques Derrida (1930–2004). Deconstruction.
- Guy Debord (1931-1994). French Marxist philosopher.
- Richard Rorty (1931–2007). Pragmatism, Postanalytic philosophy.
- Charles Taylor (born 1931). Political philosophy, Philosophy of Social Science, and Intellectual History
- John Searle (born 1932).
- Alvin Plantinga (born 1932). Reformed epistemology, Philosophy of Religion.
- Jerry Fodor (born 1935).
- Robert M. Pirsig (born 1935). Introduced the Methaphysics of Quality. MOQ incorporates facets of East Asian philosophy, pragmatism and the work of F. S. C. Northrop.
- Thomas Nagel (born 1937).
- Alain Badiou (born 1937).
- Robert Nozick (1938–2002). Libertarian.
- Tom Regan (born 1938) animal rights philosopher
- Saul Kripke (born 1940).
- Jean-Luc Nancy (born 1940) French philosopher.
- David K. Lewis (1941–2001). Modal realism.
- Joxe Azurmendi (born 1941). Basque Philosopher, Political philosophy, Social philosophy, Philosophy of language
- Derek Parfit (1942-2017).
- Giorgio Agamben (born 1942). state of exception, form-of-life, homo sacer, and the concept of biopolitics
- Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (born 1942). Post-colonialism, Feminism, Literary theory
- Peter Singer (born 1946) Moral philosopher on animal liberation, effective altruism
- John Ralston Saul (born 1947).
- Slavoj Žižek (born 1949). Hegelianism, Marxism and Lacanian psychoanalysis
- Ken Wilber (born 1949). Integral Theory.
- Cornel West (born 1953).
- Judith Butler (born 1956). Poststructuralist, feminist, queer theory
- Alexander Wendt (born 1958). Social constructivist
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